Enzymatically produced cellulose

ABSTRACT

Enzymatic reactions are disclosed herein comprising water, glucose-1-phosphate, cellodextrin, and at least one cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme comprising an amino acid sequence that is at least 90% identical to SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:6. These reactions produce a low molecular weight, insoluble cellulose with enhanced features.

This application is the National Stage application of International Application No. PCT/US2015/065707 (filed Dec. 15, 2015), which claims the benefit of International Application No. PCT/CN2014/094594 (filed Dec. 23, 2014), both of which prior applications are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

FIELD OF INVENTION

The present disclosure is in the field of polysaccharides. More specifically, the disclosure pertains to low molecular weight insoluble cellulose and enzymatic reactions for its synthesis. The disclosure also regards using cellulose in various applications such as viscosity modification and film production.

REFERENCE TO SEQUENCE LISTING SUBMITTED ELECTRONICALLY

The official copy of the sequence listing is submitted electronically via EFS-Web as an ASCII formatted sequence listing with a file named CL6392WOPCT2_SequenceListing_ST25 created on Dec. 9, 2015 and having a size of 39.4 kilobytes and is filed concurrently with the specification. The sequence listing contained in this ASCII-formatted document is part of the specification and is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety.

BACKGROUND

Driven by a desire to find new structural polysaccharides using enzymatic syntheses or genetic engineering of microorganisms, researchers have discovered polysaccharides that are biodegradable and can be made economically from renewably sourced feedstocks. One such polysaccharide is cellulose, a glucan polymer characterized by having beta-1,4-glycosidic linkages.

Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) is a white, odorless, tasteless, relatively free flowing, crystalline powder that is virtually free from organic and inorganic contaminants. It is a purified, partially depolymerized cellulose obtained by subjecting alpha cellulose obtained as a pulp from fibrous plant material (e.g., wood) to hydrolytic degradation, typically with mineral acid. MCC is a highly crystalline particulate cellulose consisting primarily of crystalline aggregates obtained by removing amorphous (fibrous cellulose) regions of a cellulosic material. MCC is used in a variety of applications including foods, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. Despite MCC's various applications, preparation of this cellulose type is laborious and expensive. Also, activation of MCC requires high shear.

Development of new forms of cellulose is desirable given the potential utility thereof in various applications. The development of novel enzymatic processes may be a useful means for producing new types of cellulose material.

SUMMARY OF INVENTION

In one embodiment, the present disclosure concerns an enzymatic reaction comprising water, glucose-1-phosphate, cellodextrin, and a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme that synthesizes insoluble cellulose. In another embodiment, the cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme comprises an amino acid sequence that is at least 90% identical to SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:6, and synthesizes insoluble cellulose.

In another embodiment, the weight-average degree of polymerization (DP_(w)) of the cellulose is (i) about 10 to about 30, or (ii) about 10 to about 1000.

In another embodiment, the cellodextrin comprises cellobiose.

In another embodiment, the present disclosure concerns a method for producing insoluble cellulose. This method comprises a) contacting at least water, glucose-1-phosphate, cellodextrin, and a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme such as one comprising an amino acid sequence that is at least 90% identical to SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:6, wherein insoluble cellulose is produced; and b) optionally isolating the insoluble cellulose produced in step (a).

In another embodiment, the cellulose produced in step (a) of the method has a weight-average degree of polymerization (DP_(w)) of (i) about 10 to about 30, or (ii) about 10 to about 1000. The cellulose produced in step (a) of the method has a cellulose II crystal structure in another embodiment.

In another embodiment, the cellodextrin employed in the method comprises cellobiose.

In another embodiment, glucose-1-phosphate is provided in step (a) of the method by providing a second reaction, wherein the products of the second reaction comprise glucose-1-phosphate. In another embodiment, the second reaction produces glucose-1-phosphate by (i) contacting water, inorganic phosphate, starch, a starch phosphorylase, and optionally a starch debranching enzyme such as a pullulanase or isoamylase; (ii) contacting water, inorganic phosphate, sucrose, and a sucrose phosphorylase enzyme; or (iii) contacting water, inorganic phosphate, cellulosic biomass, an endoglucanase, a cellodextrin phosphorylase, and optionally, a lytic polysaccharide monooxygenase and/or a cellobiohydrolase. In another embodiment, the second reaction is provided in the same vessel in which step (a) is performed, and the second reaction is performed before and/or continuously with step (a).

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS AND SEQUENCES

FIG. 1A: Atomic force microscopy (AFM) was used to analyze a thin film made from drying a colloidal dispersion of insoluble cellulose synthesized by an R. champanellensis cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme. The thickness of the sheet structure is about 5 nm. Refer to Example 4.

FIG. 1B: AFM was used to analyze a thin film made from drying a colloidal dispersion of insoluble cellulose synthesized by a V. ruber cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme. The thickness of the sheet structure is about 4.8 nm. Refer to Example 4.

FIG. 2: Viscosity versus shear rate, as measured for colloidal dispersions of insoluble cellulose material synthesized by R. champanellensis cellodextrin phosphorylase (blue diamonds, sample 1, 2.5 wt % in water) or V. ruber cellodextrin phosphorylase (red squares, sample 2, 1.7 wt % in water). Refer to Example 4.

FIG. 3: Viscosity of various commercially available water-soluble polysaccharides (carboxymethyl cellulose [CMC] and scleroglucan) in water compared to the viscosity of colloidal dispersions of insoluble cellulose material synthesized by R. champanellensis cellodextrin phosphorylase (2.5 wt % in water) or V. ruber cellodextrin phosphorylase (1.7 wt % in water). CMC of DP_(w) 3200 and 2000 were from CP Kelco, and CMC of DP_(w) 50, 360 and 1200 were FINNFIX brand CMC from CP Kelco. Scleroglucan was from Cargill (ACTIGUM). Viscosity measurements are reported at 10 1/s shear rate.

TABLE 1 Summary of Nucleic Acid and Protein SEQ ID Numbers Protein Nucleic acid SEQ ID Description SEQ ID NO. NO. “VruCdp1”, Vibrio ruber DSM14379 cellodextrin 1 2 phosphorylase. (2415 bases) (805 aa) “VruCdp1”, Vibrio ruber DSM14379 cellodextrin 3 4 phosphorylase. Nucleotide sequence codon- (2442 bases) (813 aa) optimized for expression in E. coli. Amino acid sequence contains additional C-terminal residues (L-E-6xHis). “RchCdp1”, Ruminococcus champanellensis 5 6 18P13 cellodextrin phosphorylase. GENBANK (2397 bases) (798 aa) Accession No. WP_015559149 (amino acid sequence). “RchCdp1”, Ruminococcus champanellensis 7 8 18P13 cellodextrin phosphorylase. Nucleotide (2421 bases) (806 aa) sequence codon-optimized for expression in E. coli. Amino acid sequence contains additional C-terminal residues (L-E-6xHis).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The disclosures of all cited patent and non-patent literature are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

Unless otherwise disclosed, the terms “a” and “an” as used herein are intended to encompass one or more (i.e., at least one) of a referenced feature.

Where present, all ranges are inclusive and combinable, except as otherwise noted. For example, when a range of “1 to 5” is recited, the recited range should be construed as including ranges “1 to 4”, “1 to 3”, “1-2”, “1-2 & 4-5”, “1-3 & 5”, and the like.

The terms “cellodextrin phosphorylase”, “cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme” and the like are used interchangeably herein. A cellodextrin phosphorylase is of the Enzyme Commission (EC) entry 2.4.1.49 and belongs to glycosyl hydrolase family 94 (GH94) according to the CAZy (Carbohydrate-Active EnZymes) database. A cellodextrin phosphorylase can reversibly catalyze synthesis of cellulose and free phosphate (products) from alpha-D-glucose-1-phosphate and cellodextrin (substrates). Such a reaction can also be written as: glucose-1-phosphate+(1,4-beta-D-glucosyl)_(n-1)→(1,4-beta-glucosyl)_(n)+phosphate, where “(1,4-beta-D-glucosyl)_(n-1)” refers to cellodextrin and “(1,4-beta-glucosyl)_(n)” refers to cellulose. A cellodextrin phosphorylase in certain aspects herein can synthesize low molecular weight cellulose (e.g., DP_(w) of 10-30) that is insoluble in aqueous compositions. A cellodextrin phosphorylase in certain aspects herein comprises an amino acid sequence that is at least 90% identical to SEQ ID NO:2 or 6.

The term “cellulose” refers to a glucan polysaccharide having a linear chain of beta-1,4-linked D-glucose monomeric units. Cellulose can optionally be represented as (1,4-beta-D-glucosyl)_(n), where n can be the same value as a DP_(w) value of a low molecular weight cellulose as disclosed herein (e.g., 10 to 30). The term “glucan” herein refers to a polysaccharide of D-glucose monomers that are linked by glucosidic linkages, which are a type of glycosidic linkage.

The terms “cellulose II structure”, “cellulose II crystal structure”, “cellulose II” and the like are used interchangeably herein. Cellulose II structure has been described by Kolpak and Blackwell (Macromolecules 9:273-278) and Kroon-Batenburg and Kroon (Glycoconjugate J. 14:677-690), for example, both of which are incorporated herein by reference. The dominant hydrogen bonds characterizing cellulose II structure are O2-H---O6, O6-H---O6 and O2-H---O2, whereas cellulose I has O2-H---O6 as a dominant hydrogen bond. The structure of cellulose II comprises chain folding and is difficult to unravel. Cellulose II comprises anti-parallel chains, whereas in contrast, cellulose I chains are parallel.

The terms “glycosidic linkage”, “glycosidic bond” and the like are used interchangeably herein and refer to the covalent bond that joins a carbohydrate molecule to another carbohydrate molecule. The terms “glucosidic linkage”, “glucosidic bond” and the like are used interchangeably herein and refer to a glycosidic linkage between two glucose molecules in a glucan. The term “beta-1,4-glucosidic linkage” as used herein refers to the covalent bond that joins glucose molecules to each other through carbons 1 and 4 on adjacent glucose monomers in a glucan.

The glycosidic linkage profile of cellulose herein can be determined using any method known in the art. For example, a linkage profile can be determined using methods that use nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy (e.g., ¹³C NMR or ¹H NMR). These and other methods that can be used are disclosed in Food Carbohydrates: Chemistry, Physical Properties, and Applications (S. W. Cui, Ed., Chapter 3, S. W. Cui, Structural Analysis of Polysaccharides, Taylor & Francis Group LLC, Boca Raton, Fla., 2005), which is incorporated herein by reference.

The “molecular weight” of a saccharide polymer herein, such as cellulose, can be represented as number-average molecular weight (M_(n)) or as weight-average molecular weight (M_(w)), the units of which are in Daltons or grams/mole. Alternatively, molecular weight can be represented as DP_(w) (weight average degree of polymerization) or DP_(n) (number average degree of polymerization). Various means are known in the art for calculating these molecular weight measurements such as with high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC), size exclusion chromatography (SEC), or gel permeation chromatography (GPC).

The term “cellodextrin” as used herein refers to one or more glucose polymers having a length of two or more beta-1,4-linked glucose monomers. Cellodextrin is typically produced via (enzymatic) hydrolysis of cellulose. “Cellobiose” is a type of cellodextrin that comprises two beta-1,4-linked glucose monomers (La, cellobiose is a type of disaccharide).

“Glucose-1-phosphate” (G1P) as used herein refers to a glucose molecule with a phosphate group on the 1-carbon. G1P herein can be alpha-D-glucose-1-phosphate.

The terms “enzymatic reaction”, “cellodextrin phosphorylase reaction” and the like are used interchangeably herein and, except as otherwise noted, refer to a reaction that is performed by a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme. An enzymatic reaction generally refers to a solution comprising at least one active cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme in a solution comprising water, glucose-1-phosphate, and cellodextrin (e.g., cellobiose), and optionally other components. It is in a cellodextrin phosphorylase reaction where the step of contacting water, glucose-1-phosphate, cellodextrin and a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme is performed. The term “under suitable reaction conditions” and the like refer to reaction conditions that support conversion of substrate to low molecular weight, insoluble cellulose via cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme activity. A cellodextrin phosphorylase reaction herein is not naturally occurring. It would be understood that, as a cellodextrin phosphorylase reaction produces insoluble cellulose, such cellulose is present out of solution.

A “control” enzymatic reaction as used herein can refer to a reaction using a cellodextrin phosphorylase not comprising an amino acid sequence that is at least 90% identical to SEQ ID NO:2 or 6, for example. All the other features (e.g., substrate concentration, temperature, pH, time) of a control reaction solution can be the same as the reaction to which it is being compared.

A “second reaction” as used herein refers to a reaction that is in addition to a cellodextrin phosphorylase reaction (“first reaction”), and which provides G1P substrate for the first reaction.

“Inorganic phosphate” which can be denoted as “P_(i)”, refers to a free phosphate ion in solution, and is distinguished from phosphates bound in various phosphate esters.

A “G1P-producing enzyme” can refer to an enzyme that catalyzes synthesis of products in which at least one product is a G1P. Examples of G1P-producing enzymes include starch phosphorylase, sucrose phosphorylase, and cellodextrin phosphorylase (when catalyzing above reaction in reverse direction, i.e., cellulose hydrolysis).

“Starch phosphorylase” as used herein is of the EC entry 2.4.1.1 and can catalyze conversion of starch and inorganic phosphate to glucose-1-phosphate. Such a reaction can also be written as: (1,4-alpha-D-glucosyl)_(n)+phosphate→(1,4-alpha-D-glucosyl)_(n-1)+alpha-D-glucose-1-phosphate, where “(1,4-alpha-D-glucosyl)_(n)” refers to starch.

A “starch debranching enzyme” as used herein refers to an enzyme that can catalyze hydrolysis of 1,6-alpha-D-glucosidic linkages, which are at branch points in starch. Examples of starch debranching enzymes herein include pullulanase and isoamylase. A “pullulanase” as used herein is of the EC entry 3.2.1.41. An “isoamylase” as used herein is of the EC entry 3.2.1.68.

The term “sucrose” herein refers to a non-reducing disaccharide composed of an alpha-D-glucose molecule and a beta-D-fructose molecule linked by an alpha-1,2-glycosidic bond. Sucrose is known commonly as table sugar.

“Sucrose phosphorylase” as used herein is of the EC entry 2.4.1.7 and can catalyze conversion of sucrose and phosphate to fructose and G1P. Such a reaction can also be written as: sucrose+phosphate→fructose+alpha-D-glucose-1-phosphate.

“Cellulosic biomass”, “cellulose-comprising biomass” and the like are used interchangeably herein and refer to material comprising the structural portion of plants (e.g., wood, stems) that cannot directly be used for food ingredients or as fermentation substrates.

“Endoglucanase” and “beta-1,4-endoglucanase” are used interchangeably herein and refer to an enzyme that can cleave internal bonds within cellulose chains, making shorter cellulose chains. Such shorter chains are suitable substrates for cellodextrin phosphorylase when catalyzing the above reaction in reverse direction (i.e., cellulose hydrolysis).

The terms “percent by volume”, “volume percent”, “vol %”, “v/v %” and the like are used interchangeably herein. The percent by volume of a solute in a solution can be determined using the formula: [(volume of solute)/(volume of solution)]×100%.

The terms “percent by weight”, “weight percentage (wt %)”, “weight-weight percentage (% w/w)” and the like are used interchangeably herein. Percent by weight refers to the percentage of a material on a mass basis as it is comprised in a composition, mixture, or solution.

The term “increased” as used herein can refer to a quantity or activity that is at least about 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 11%, 12%, 13%, 14%, 15%, 16%, 17%, 18%, 19%, 20%, 50%, 100%, or 200% more than the quantity or activity for which the increased quantity or activity is being compared. The terms “increased”, “elevated”, “enhanced”, “greater than”, “improved” and the like are used interchangeably herein.

The terms “polynucleotide”, “polynucleotide sequence”, “nucleic acid sequence” and the like are used interchangeably herein. These terms encompass nucleotide sequences and the like. A polynucleotide may be a polymer of DNA or RNA that is single- or double-stranded, that optionally contains synthetic, non-natural or altered nucleotide bases. A polynucleotide may be comprised of one or more segments of cDNA, genomic DNA, synthetic DNA, or mixtures thereof.

The term “gene” as used herein refers to a DNA polynucleotide sequence that expresses an RNA (RNA is transcribed from the DNA polynucleotide sequence) from a coding region, which RNA can be a messenger RNA (encoding a protein) or a non-protein-coding RNA. A gene may refer to the coding region alone, or may include regulatory sequences upstream and/or downstream to the coding region (e.g., promoters, 5′-untranslated regions, 3′-transcription terminator regions). A coding region encoding a protein can alternatively be referred to herein as an “open reading frame” (ORF). A gene that is “native” or “endogenous” refers to a gene as found in nature with its own regulatory sequences; such a gene is located in its natural location in the genome of a host cell. A “chimeric” gene refers to any gene that is not a native gene, comprising regulatory and coding sequences that are not found together in nature (i.e., the regulatory and coding regions are heterologous with each other). Accordingly, a chimeric gene may comprise regulatory sequences and coding sequences that are derived from different sources, or regulatory sequences and coding sequences derived from the same source, but arranged in a manner different than that found in nature. A “foreign” or “heterologous” gene refers to a gene that is introduced into the host organism by gene transfer. Foreign/heterologous genes can comprise native genes inserted into a non-native organism, native genes introduced into a new location within the native host, or chimeric genes. The polynucleotide sequences in certain embodiments disclosed herein are heterologous. A “transgene” is a gene that has been introduced into the genome by a gene delivery procedure (e.g., transformation). A “codon-optimized” open reading frame has its frequency of codon usage designed to mimic the frequency of preferred codon usage of the host cell.

A “non-native” amino acid sequence or polynucleotide sequence comprised in a cell or organism herein does not occur in a native (natural) counterpart of such cell or organism.

“Regulatory sequences” as used herein refer to nucleotide sequences located upstream of a gene's transcription start site (e.g., promoter), 5′ untranslated regions, introns, and 3′ non-coding regions, and which may influence the transcription, processing or stability, and/or translation of an RNA transcribed from the gene. Regulatory sequences herein may include promoters, enhancers, silencers, 5′ untranslated leader sequences, introns, polyadenylation recognition sequences, RNA processing sites, effector binding sites, stem-loop structures, and other elements involved in regulation of gene expression. One or more regulatory elements herein (e.g., promoter) may be heterologous to a coding region herein.

The term “operably linked” as used herein refers to the association of two or more nucleic acid sequences such that that the function of one is affected by the other. For example, a promoter is operably linked with a coding sequence when it is capable of affecting the expression of that coding sequence. That is, the coding sequence is under the transcriptional control of the promoter. A coding sequence can be operably linked to one (e.g., promoter) or more (e.g., promoter and terminator) regulatory sequences, for example.

The term “recombinant” when used herein to characterize a DNA sequence such as a plasmid, vector, or construct refers to an artificial combination of two otherwise separated segments of sequence, e.g., by chemical synthesis and/or by manipulation of isolated segments of nucleic acids by genetic engineering techniques. Methods for preparing recombinant constructs/vectors herein can follow standard recombinant DNA and molecular cloning techniques as described by J. Sambrook and D. Russell (Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 3rd Edition, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 2001); T. J. Silhavy et al. (Experiments with Gene Fusions, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1984); and F. M. Ausubel et al. (Short Protocols in Molecular Biology, 5th Ed. Current Protocols, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY, 2002), for example.

The term “transformation” as used herein refers to the transfer of a nucleic acid molecule into a host organism or host cell by any method. A nucleic acid molecule that has been transformed into an organism/cell may be one that replicates autonomously in the organism/cell, or that integrates into the genome of the organism/cell, or that exists transiently in the cell without replicating or integrating. Non-limiting examples of nucleic acid molecules suitable for transformation are disclosed herein, such as plasmids and linear DNA molecules. Host organisms/cells herein containing a transforming nucleic acid sequence can be referred to as “transgenic”, “recombinant”, “transformed”, engineered, as a “transformant”, and/or as being “modified for exogenous gene expression”, for example.

The terms “sequence identity” or “identity” as used herein with respect to polynucleotide or polypeptide sequences refer to the nucleic acid bases or amino acid residues in two sequences that are the same when aligned for maximum correspondence over a specified comparison window. Thus, “percentage of sequence identity” or “percent identity” refers to the value determined by comparing two optimally aligned sequences over a comparison window, wherein the portion of the polynucleotide or polypeptide sequence in the comparison window may comprise additions or deletions (i.e., gaps) as compared to the reference sequence (which does not comprise additions or deletions) for optimal alignment of the two sequences. The percentage is calculated by determining the number of positions at which the identical nucleic acid base or amino acid residue occurs in both sequences to yield the number of matched positions, dividing the number of matched positions by the total number of positions in the window of comparison and multiplying the results by 100 to yield the percentage of sequence identity. It would be understood that, when calculating sequence identity between a DNA sequence and an RNA sequence, T residues of the DNA sequence align with, and can be considered “identical” with, U residues of the RNA sequence. For purposes of determining “percent complementarity” of first and second polynucleotides, one can obtain this by determining (i) the percent identity between the first polynucleotide and the complement sequence of the second polynucleotide (or vice versa), for example, and/or (ii) the percentage of bases between the first and second polynucleotides that would create canonical Watson and Crick base pairs.

The Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) algorithm, which is available online at the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) website, may be used, for example, to measure percent identity between or among two or more of the polynucleotide sequences (BLASTN algorithm) or polypeptide sequences (BLASTP algorithm) disclosed herein. Alternatively, percent identity between sequences may be performed using a Clustal algorithm (e.g., ClustalW, ClustalV, or Clustal-Omega). For multiple alignments using a Clustal method of alignment, the default values may correspond to GAP PENALTY=10 and GAP LENGTH PENALTY=10. Default parameters for pairwise alignments and calculation of percent identity of protein sequences using a Clustal method may be KTUPLE=1, GAP PENALTY=3, WINDOW=5 and DIAGONALS SAVED=5. For nucleic acids, these parameters may be KTUPLE=2, GAP PENALTY=5, WINDOW=4 and DIAGONALS SAVED=4. Alternatively still, percent identity between sequences may be performed using an EMBOSS algorithm (e.g., needle) with parameters such as GAP OPEN=10, GAP EXTEND=0.5, END GAP PENALTY=false, END GAP OPEN=10, END GAP EXTEND=0.5 using a BLOSUM matrix (e.g., BLOSUM62).

Various polypeptide amino acid sequences and polynucleotide sequences are disclosed herein as features of certain embodiments. Variants of these sequences that are at least about 70-85%, 85-90%, or 90%-95% identical to the sequences disclosed herein can be used. Alternatively, a variant amino acid sequence or polynucleotide sequence can have at least 70%, 71%, 72%, 73%, 74%, 75%, 76%, 77%, 78%, 79%, 80%, 81%, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% identity with a sequence disclosed herein. The variant amino acid sequence or polynucleotide sequence has the same function/activity of the disclosed sequence, or at least about 80%, 81%, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% of the function/activity of the disclosed sequence. Any polypeptide amino acid sequence disclosed herein not beginning with a methionine can typically further comprise at least a start-methionine at the N-terminus of the amino acid sequence. Any polypeptide amino acid sequence disclosed herein beginning with a methionine can optionally be considered without this methionine residue (i.e., a polypeptide sequence can be referred to in reference to the position-2 residue to the C-terminal residue of the sequence).

The term “isolated” as used herein refers to a polynucleotide, polypeptide, or cellulose material that has been completely or partially purified. In some instances, the isolated polynucleotide, polypeptide, or cellulose material is part of a greater composition, buffer system, or reagent mix. For example, the isolated polynucleotide or polypeptide molecule can be comprised within a cell or organism in a heterologous manner. Such a cell or organism containing heterologous components and/or one or more genetic deletions does not occur in nature. Another example is an isolated cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme or reaction. Cellulose compositions herein and the enzymes and reactions used to produce these compositions are synthetic/man-made, and/or exhibit properties not believed to naturally occur.

An “aqueous composition” herein has a liquid component that comprises at least about 10 wt % water, for example. Examples of aqueous compositions include mixtures, solutions, dispersions (e.g., colloidal dispersions), suspensions and emulsions, for example. An aqueous composition in certain embodiments can comprise an insoluble cellulose as disclosed herein, in which case the aqueous composition can optionally be characterized as a solid-in-liquid composition, given the cellulose insolubility.

As used herein, the term “colloidal dispersion” refers to a heterogeneous system having a dispersed phase and a dispersion medium, i.e., microscopically dispersed insoluble particles are suspended throughout another substance (e.g., an aqueous composition such as water or aqueous solution). An example of a colloidal dispersion herein is a hydrocolloid. All, or a portion of, the particles of a colloidal dispersion such as a hydrocolloid can comprise cellulose of the present disclosure. The terms “dispersant” and “dispersion agent” are used interchangeably herein to refer to a material that promotes the formation and/or stabilization of a dispersion.

The terms “hydrocolloid” and “hydrogel” are used interchangeably herein. A hydrocolloid refers to a colloid system in which water or an aqueous solution is the dispersion medium.

The term “aqueous solution” herein refers to a solution in which the solvent comprises water. An aqueous solution can serve as a dispersant in certain aspects herein. Cellulose in certain embodiments can be dispersed or mixed within an aqueous solution.

The term “viscosity” as used herein refers to the measure of the extent to which a fluid or an aqueous composition such as a hydrocolloid resists a force tending to cause it to flow. Various units of viscosity that can be used herein include centipoise (cPs) and Pascal-second (Pa·s). A centipoise is one one-hundredth of a poise; one poise is equal to 0.100 kg·m⁻¹·s⁻¹, or 1 mPa·s. Thus, the terms “viscosity modifier”, “viscosity-modifying agent” and the like as used herein refer to anything that can alter/modify the viscosity of a fluid or aqueous composition.

The term “shear thinning behavior” as used herein refers to a decrease in the viscosity of an aqueous composition as shear rate increases. “Shear rate” herein refers to the rate at which a progressive shearing deformation is applied to an aqueous composition. A shearing deformation can be applied rotationally, for example.

The term “contacting” as used herein with respect to methods of increasing the viscosity of an aqueous composition refers to any action that results in bringing together an aqueous composition with cellulose as presently disclosed. Contacting can be performed by any means known in the art, such as mixing, shaking, or homogenization, for example.

“DMSO” as used herein refers to dimethyl sulfoxide, which has the formula (CH₃)₂SO.

“DMAc” as used herein refers to N,N-dimethylacetamide, which has the formula CH₃CON(CH₃)₂.

The terms “mercerization”, “mercerization process” and the like are used interchangeably herein to refer to a process in which cellulose material is treated under caustic alkali conditions, typically comprising sodium hydroxide. Cellulose as disclosed in certain embodiments herein has not been mercerized.

The terms “derivatization”, “derivatization process” and the like are used interchangeably herein to refer to a process in which cellulose material is treated under conditions leading to the substitution of one or more hydrogens of cellulose —OH groups with a different moiety/functional group (e.g., carboxymethyl group). Cellulose as disclosed in certain embodiments herein has not been derivatized.

The term “film” as used herein refers to a thin, visually continuous material. A film can be comprised as a thin layer or coating on a material, or can be alone (e.g., not attached to a material surface). A “coating” as used herein refers to a thin layer covering a surface of a material.

The term “uniform thickness” as used to characterize a film or coating herein can refer to a contiguous area that (i) is at least 20% of the total film/coating area, and (ii) has a standard deviation of thickness of less than about 50 nm, for example.

A film or coating herein can be characterized as being of “low permeability” to a particular substance if the film/coating permeability to the substance is below a threshold value commonly assigned in the art of interest. To illustrate, the threshold value for styrene permeability in the SMC (super-multicoated) release film field is 200×10⁻⁹ g cm/cm²/h, such as measured using the method described in American Institute of Chemical Engineer, 53rd National Meeting, Preprint No. 32d (Bixler and Michaels, 1964). A film or coating can be characterized as being “impermeable” to a particular substance if it does not permit passage of the substance over an extended period of time (e.g., one or more days).

Development of new forms of cellulose is desirable given the potential utility thereof in various applications. The development of novel enzymatic processes may be a useful means for producing new types of cellulose material.

Embodiments of the present disclosure concern an enzymatic reaction comprising at least water, glucose-1-phosphate, cellodextrin, and a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme that synthesizes cellulose. For example, a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme can (i) comprise an amino acid sequence that is at least 90% identical to SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:6, and (ii) synthesize cellulose. Significantly, such enzymatic reactions are able to produce low molecular weight, insoluble cellulose that has enhanced features under both dry and aqueous conditions, rendering such cellulose as having broad applicability.

An enzyme with cellodextrin phosphorylase activity suitable for use in an enzymatic reaction as presently disclosed can comprise, for example, an amino acid sequence that is at least 90% identical to SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:6. In some embodiments, such an enzyme can comprise, or consist of, an amino acid sequence that is 100% identical to, or at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% identical to, SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:6. Non-limiting examples of a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme comprising SEQ ID NO:2 include cellodextrin phosphorylase enzymes comprising, or consisting of, an amino acid sequence that is 100% identical to, or at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% identical to, SEQ ID NO:4. Non-limiting examples of a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme comprising SEQ ID NO:6 include cellodextrin phosphorylase enzymes comprising, or consisting of, an amino acid sequence that is 100% identical to, or at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% identical to, SEQ ID NO:8. A variant cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme (e.g., between 90-99% amino acid identity with SEQ ID NO:2, 4, 6, or 8 reference sequence) should have some of (e.g., at least 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, or 90% of), or all of, the enzymatic activity (refer to above definitions) of the corresponding non-variant reference sequence.

A polynucleotide sequence encoding SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:4 can optionally comprise a nucleotide sequence that is 100% identical to, or at least 70%, 71%, 72%, 73%, 74%, 75%, 76%, 77%, 78%, 79%, 80%, 81%, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% identical to, SEQ ID NO:1 or 3, respectively. A polynucleotide sequence encoding SEQ ID NO:6 or SEQ ID NO:8 can optionally comprise a nucleotide sequence that is 100% identical to, or at least 70%, 71%, 72%, 73%, 74%, 75%, 76%, 77%, 78%, 79%, 80%, 81%, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91% 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% identical to, SEQ ID NO:5 or 7, respectively.

Given that certain amino acids share similar structural and/or charge features with each other (i.e., conserved), one or more amino acids of a cellodextrin phosphorylase sequence herein (and/or other types of polypeptides herein) can be substituted with a conserved amino acid residue (“conservative amino acid substitution”) as follows:

-   -   1. The following small aliphatic, nonpolar or slightly polar         residues can substitute for each other: Ala (A), Ser (S), Thr         (T), Pro (P), Gly (G);     -   2. The following polar, negatively charged residues and their         amides can substitute for each other: Asp (D), Asn (N), Glu (E),         Gln (Q);     -   3. The following polar, positively charged residues can         substitute for each other: His (H), Arg (R), Lys (K);     -   4. The following aliphatic, nonpolar residues can substitute for         each other: Ala (A), Leu (L), Ile (I), Val (V), Cys (C), Met         (M); and     -   5. The following large aromatic residues can substitute for each         other: Phe (F), Tyr (Y), Trp (W).

An enzyme with cellodextrin phosphorylase activity herein can be obtained from any microbial source, for example, such as a bacteria or fungus (e.g., yeast). Examples of suitable bacteria include Vibrio species and Ruminococcus species. Examples of suitable Vibrio species include V. ruber, V. cholerae, V. adaptatus, V. alginolyticus, V. mimicus, V. parahaemolyticus, V. proteolyticus, and V. vulnificus. Examples of suitable Ruminococcus species include R. champanellensis, R. albus, R. bromii, R. flavefaciens, R. gnavus, R. lactaris, R. obeum, and R. torques.

Examples of enzymes with cellodextrin phosphorylase activity herein can be any of the amino acid sequences disclosed herein and that further include 1-300 (or any integer there between [e.g., 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, or 50]) residues on the N-terminus and/or C-terminus. Such additional residues may be a heterologous sequence such as an epitope tag (at either N- or C-terminus) (e.g., His tag such as a hexa histidine) or a heterologous signal peptide (at N-terminus), for example. In those embodiments in which a heterologous amino acid sequence is incorporated at the N-terminus, such a heterologous sequence can be adjacent to the original start-methionine of the cellodextrin phosphorylase, or can replace the original start methionine, for example. In the latter embodiment, a new start-methionine can be employed at the N-terminus of the added heterologous sequence.

An enzyme with cellodextrin phosphorylase activity as presently disclosed typically lacks an N-terminal signal peptide. However, an expression system for producing a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme can optionally employ an enzyme-encoding polynucleotide that further comprises sequence encoding an N-terminal signal peptide to direct extra-cellular secretion. The signal peptide in such embodiments is cleaved from the enzyme during the secretion process. Since it is believed that the cellodextrin phosphorylase enzymes disclosed herein (e.g., SEQ ID NO:2 and 6) are not associated with a signal peptide as natively expressed, any added signal peptide may be considered as heterologous to the enzyme. An example of a signal peptide useful herein is one from a bacterial (e.g., a Bacillus species such as B. subtilis) or fungal species. An example of a bacterial signal peptide is an aprE signal peptide, such as one from Bacillus (e.g., B. subtilis, see Vogtentanz et al., Protein Expr. Purif. 55:40-52, which is incorporated herein by reference).

A cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme in some embodiments does not occur in nature; for example, an enzyme herein is not believed to be one that is naturally secreted (i.e., mature form) from a microbe (from which the cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme herein could possibly have been derived).

A cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme herein can be prepared by fermentation of an appropriately engineered microbial strain, for example. Recombinant enzyme production by fermentation is well known in the art using microbial strains such as E. coli, Bacillus strains (e.g., B. subtilis), Ralstonia eutropha, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Pichia pastoris, Hansenula polymorpha, and species of Aspergillus (e.g., A. awamori) and Trichoderma (e.g., T. reesei) (e.g., see Adrio and Demain, Biomolecules 4:117-139, which is incorporated herein by reference).

A cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme of the present disclosure may be used in any purification state (e.g., pure or non-pure). For example, a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme may be purified and/or isolated prior to its use. Examples of cellodextrin phosphorylase enzymes that are non-pure include those in the form of a cell lysate. A cell lysate or extract may be prepared from a bacteria (e.g., E. coli) used to heterologously express the enzyme. For example, the bacteria may be subjected to disruption using a French pressure cell. In alternative embodiments, bacteria may be homogenized with a homogenizer (e.g., APV, Rannie, Gaulin). A cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme is typically soluble in these types of preparations. A bacterial cell lysate, extract, or homogenate herein may be used at about 0.15-0.3% (v/v) in an enzymatic reaction herein, if desired. In other embodiments, an enzyme with cellodextrin phosphorylase activity can be isolated after its expression. For example, the enzyme can be isolated using a binding/washing or binding/washing/elution approach (e.g., binding enzyme to a column of other fixed surface, followed by washing and optionally eluting enzyme off column or other fixed surface). An enzyme isolation approach can comprise binding a heterologous amino acid sequence-tagged cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme in certain embodiments, wherein such binding is via the heterologous amino acid sequence tag (e.g., His tag). A cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme can be isolated from a cell lysate or any other composition (e.g., medium into which enzyme is optionally secreted), for example. In certain aspects, a cellodextrin phosphorylase preparation can lack glucose-1-phosphatase activity. A cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme in some aspects can be immobilized (e.g., to a matrix) or expressed on cell surfaces. A cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme can optionally be modified with polyethylene glycol (PEG), for instance.

Cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme of the present disclosure can synthesize low molecular weight cellulose that is insoluble in aqueous compositions. For example, a cellodextrin phosphorylase as employed in an enzymatic reaction herein can produce low molecular weight, insoluble cellulose.

Cellulose produced by a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme in certain embodiments can have a DP_(w) or DP_(n) of about 10-1000. For example, DP_(w) or DP_(n) of cellulose herein can be about 10-500, 10-250, 10-100, 10-75, 10-50, 10-45, 10-40, 10-35, 10-30, 10-25, 15-50, 15-45, 15-40, 15-35, 15-30, or 15-25. DP_(w) or DP_(n) of cellulose in some aspects can be about, at least about, or less than about, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, or 50.

Cellulose produced by a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme in some aspects can have an M_(w) of about 1700-170000, 1700-86000, 1700-43000, 1700-17000, 1700-13000, 1700-8500, 1700-6800, 1700-5100, 2550-5100, or 2550-4250. M_(w) can be about, at least about, or less than about, 1700, 1900, 2100, 2300, 2500, 2700, 2900, 3100, 3300, 3500, 3700, 3900, 4100, 4300, 4500, 4700, 4900, or 5100 in some aspects.

About 100% of the glycosidic linkages of cellulose produced by a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme herein are beta-1,4 linkages, for example. Cellulose in other aspects can have a glycosidic linkage profile of at least about 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% beta-1,4 linkages. Accordingly, cellulose enzymatically produced herein can have, for example, less than 10%, 9%, 8%, 7%, 6%, 5%, 4%, 3%, 2%, or 1% of glycosidic linkages that are other than beta-1,4.

The backbone of a cellulose synthesized by cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme herein can be linear/unbranched. Alternatively, there can be branches in the cellulose. Thus, in certain embodiments, cellulose can have no branch points or less than about 5%, 4%, 3%, 2%, or 1% branch points as a percent of the glycosidic linkages in the polymer.

Cellulose produced by a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme in some aspects herein can have a cellulose II crystal structure. For example, cellulose herein can comprise about 100% cellulose, by weight, that is of a cellulose II crystal structure. As other examples, cellulose can comprise at least about 80%, 81%, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% cellulose, by weight, that is of a cellulose II crystal structure. Cellulose in some aspects can comprise less than about 20%, 19%, 18%, 17%, 16%, 15%, 14%, 13%, 12%, 11%, 10%, 9%, 8%, 7%, 6%, 5%, 4%, 3%, 2%, or 1% cellulose material, by weight, that is of a cellulose I, III, and/or IV crystal structure. Cellulose II crystal structure has been described by Kolpak and Blackwell (Macromolecules 9:273-278) and Kroon-Batenburg and Kroon (Glycoconjugate J. 14:677-690), for example, both of which are incorporated herein by reference. The dominant hydrogen bonds characterizing a cellulose II structure are O2-H---O6, O6-H---O6 and O2-H---O2, whereas cellulose I has O2-H---O6 as a dominant hydrogen bond. The structure of cellulose II comprises chain folding and is difficult to unravel.

Cellulose is produced by a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme of the present disclosure directly as cellulose II. In contrast to cellulose as presently disclosed, cellulose produced in nature (e.g., in plants) typically is of a cellulose I structure and generally requires mercerization and/or other chemical treatments (e.g., derivatization followed by un-derivatization, formation of regenerated cellulose) to convert it into cellulose II. Cellulose in certain embodiments herein is in the cellulose II crystal state under both aqueous and dry conditions.

Cellulose as produced herein is insoluble in aqueous solvents such as water. However, it can be soluble in solvents comprising dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and/or N,N-dimethylacetamide (DMAc). Examples of such solvents include DMSO or DMAc alone or further comprising lithium chloride (LiCl) (e.g., DMSO/LiCl and DMAc/LiCl). A DMSO/LiCl solvent or DMSO/LiCl solvent herein can comprise about 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 wt % LiCl, for example, or can be LiCl-saturated. The concentration of cellulose herein can be at about 0.1-30 wt %, 0.1-20 wt %, 0.1-10 wt %, or 0.1-5 wt %, for example, or can be at about, or at least about, 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, or 30 wt % in a non-aqueous solvent such as one comprising DMSO and/or DMAc. DMSO- and DMAc-comprising solvents herein do not further comprise an acid in certain aspects. Cellulose herein can be dissolved in any of the foregoing DMSO- and DMAc-based solvents at a relatively low temperature, such as at 15-30° C., 20-30° C., or 20-25° C. (e.g., room temperature), for example. In preferred embodiments, heat does not need to be applied to dissolve the cellulose.

Enzymatic reactions of the present disclosure comprise cellodextrin. Examples of cellodextrin suitable for use in an enzymatic reaction herein include cellobiose (DP2), cellotriose (DP3), cellotetraose (DP4), cellopentaose (DP5), and cellohexaose (DP6). Cellobiose is used as a cellodextrin in certain aspects. Other examples of cellodextrin suitable herein include glucose polymers of 7 or more beta-1,4-linked glucose monomers resulting from the breakdown (e.g., enzymatic breakdown) of cellulose. One or more (e.g., a mixture of 2, 3, 4 or more) of the above types of cellodextrin can be employed in some embodiments. Non-phosphorylated glucose monomer typically is not used in an enzymatic reaction herein.

The temperature of an enzymatic reaction herein comprising a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme can be controlled, if desired. In certain embodiments, the temperature is between about 5° C. to about 50° C. The temperature in certain other embodiments is between about 20° C. to about 40° C. In still other embodiments, the temperature may be about 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, or 40° C. The temperature of an enzymatic reaction can be maintained using various means known in the art. For example, the temperature can be maintained by placing the vessel containing the reaction in an air or water bath incubator set at the desired temperature.

The pH of an enzymatic reaction in certain embodiments herein can be between about 5.0 to about 9.0. Alternatively, the pH can be about 5.0, 5.5, 6.0, 6.5, 7.0, 7.5, 8.0, 8.5, or 9.0. The pH can be adjusted or controlled by the addition or incorporation of a suitable buffer, including but not limited to: phosphate, tris, citrate, or a combination thereof. Buffer concentration in the enzymatic reaction can be from 0 mM to about 100 mM, or about 10, 25, 50, or 75 mM, for example.

The initial concentration of glucose-1-phosphate (G1P) in the presently disclosed cellodextrin phosphorylase reaction can be about, or at least about, 1 to 100 mM, for example. Other G1P initial concentrations can be, for example, about, or at least about, 1, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, or 100 mM, or about 10-50 mM. The initial concentration of cellodextrin (e.g., cellobiose) in the presently disclosed cellodextrin phosphorylase reaction can be about 1 to 50 mM, for example. Other cellodextrin initial concentrations can be, for example, about 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, or 50 mM, or about 5-10 mM. “Initial concentration” of a substrate such as G1P or cellodextrin refers to the substrate concentration in an enzymatic reaction just after all the reaction components have been added (at least water, G1P, cellodextrin, cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme).

The activity of a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme herein can be about 1 to 30 units per mg of enzyme protein in some embodiments. Enzyme activity can be about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 10-20, or 15-20 units per mg of enzyme protein, for example. Cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme activity can be determined using any method known in the art. A unit of cellodextrin phosphorylase activity can refer to, for example, the amount of enzyme that releases 1 micro-mol of inorganic phosphorus (released from cellobiose) per minute under the following conditions: ˜10 mM G1P, ˜5 mM cellobiose, ˜25 mM Tris-HCl buffer, ˜pH 7.0, held at ˜37° C., optionally for ˜10 minutes. Inorganic phosphate release from cellobiose can be gauged using a reagent or kit designed to detect free phosphate (e.g., PiBlue™ Phosphate Assay Kit, BioAssay Systems, Hayward, Calif.).

The amount of a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme comprised in an enzymatic reaction in some aspects can be about 0.1-2.0 or 0.5-1.0 units/m L. For example, at least about 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0, 1.2, 1.4, 1.6, 1.8, or 2.0 units/mL of enzyme can be employed in a reaction.

Embodiments of the present disclosure also concern a method for producing cellulose, comprising:

a) contacting at least water, glucose-1-phosphate (G1P), cellodextrin, and a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme (e.g., one comprising an amino acid sequence that is at least 90% identical to SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:6), wherein insoluble cellulose is produced; and

b) optionally, isolating the cellulose produced in step (a).

The contacting step in a method herein of producing cellulose can optionally be characterized as providing an enzymatic reaction comprising water, glucose-1-phosphate, cellodextrin, and a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme of the present disclosure. The contacting step in a cellulose production method herein can be performed in any number of ways. For example, the desired amount of G1P and/or cellodextrin (e.g., cellobiose) can first be dissolved in water (optionally, other components may also be added at this stage of preparation, such as buffer components), followed by addition of one or more cellodextrin phosphorylase enzymes. The reaction may be kept still, or agitated via stirring or orbital shaking, for example. The reaction can be, and typically is, cell-free.

The enzymatic reaction of a cellulose production method can be contained within any vessel suitable for applying one or more of the reaction conditions disclosed herein. For example, a stainless steel, plastic, or glass vessel or container of a size suitable to contain a particular reaction can be employed. Such a vessel can optionally be equipped with a stirring device.

Completion of an enzymatic reaction of a cellulose production method in certain embodiments can be determined visually (e.g., no more accumulation of insoluble cellulose) and/or by measuring the amount of substrate (G1P and/or cellodextrin) left in the reaction (e.g., no more decrease in substrate levels over time). Typically, a reaction of the disclosed method can take about 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 48, 60, 72, 84, or 96 hours to complete, for example. Reaction time may depend, for example, on certain parameters such as the amount of substrate and/or cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme employed.

Insoluble cellulose produced in the disclosed method may optionally be isolated. For example, insoluble cellulose may be separated by centrifugation or filtration. In doing so, the cellulose is separated from the reaction solution, which can comprise water, residual substrate(s) and reaction byproducts.

Insoluble cellulose produced in a contacting step of a cellulose production method herein can have any of the features disclosed herein. For example, any of the features of water-insolubility, DP_(w) (e.g., DP_(w) of 10-30) and/or M_(w), glycosidic linkage profile, backbone structure (e.g., linearity), cellulose II structural content, and/or solubility in certain non-aqueous compositions as disclosed elsewhere herein can characterize cellulose produced in step (a).

Insoluble cellulose produced in a contacting step of a cellulose production method in some aspects can have a cellulose II crystal structure (i.e., the cellulose is enzymatically synthesized directly as cellulose II). In contrast to cellulose as presently disclosed, cellulose produced in nature (e.g., in plants) typically is of a cellulose I structure and generally requires mercerization and/or other chemical treatments (e.g., derivatization followed by un-derivatization, formation of regenerated cellulose) to convert it into cellulose II. Cellulose in certain embodiments herein is in the cellulose II crystal state under both aqueous and dry conditions.

Any features disclosed herein characterizing enzymatic reaction embodiments can be employed in performing a contacting step of a cellulose production method. For example, any of the features of cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme amino acid sequence and source, substrate levels, temperature, pH and buffer levels, and/or enzyme activity/amount as disclosed elsewhere herein can characterize a reaction performed in the contacting step.

The contacting step of a cellulose production method in some aspects can comprise cellobiose as a cellodextrin. Other examples of cellodextrin suitable for use in an enzymatic reaction herein include cellotriose, cellotetraose, cellopentaose, and cellohexaose. Still other examples of cellodextrin suitable herein include glucose polymers of 7 or more beta-1,4-linked glucose monomers resulting from the breakdown (e.g., enzymatic breakdown) of cellulose. One or more (e.g., a mixture of 2, 3, 4 or more) of the above types of cellodextrin can be employed in some embodiments.

Glucose-1-phosphate (G1P) provided in a contacting step of a cellulose production method can be providing directly via addition of isolated G1P (e.g., G1P obtained from a commercial source), for example. Alternatively, G1P can be provided in the contacting step by providing at least a second reaction, wherein the products of the second reaction comprise G1P (i.e., the second reaction produces G1P as a product). A “second reaction” refers to a reaction that is in addition to the cellodextrin phosphorylase reaction performed in the contacting step (can optionally be denoted as a “first reaction”), and which provides G1P substrate for the cellodextrin phosphorylase reaction. A second reaction can optionally be characterized as employing a “G1P-producing enzyme” such as a starch phosphorylase, sucrose phosphorylase, or cellodextrin phosphorylase (when catalyzing cellulose hydrolysis).

A second reaction for providing G1P in some aspects can be provided in the same vessel in which a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzymatic reaction is performed. Alternatively, a second reaction can be performed outside of (separate from) the vessel in which a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzymatic reaction is performed. A second reaction can be performed before and/or continuously with a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzymatic reaction of a cellulose production method.

A second reaction in some embodiments can comprise contacting water, inorganic phosphate, starch, a starch phosphorylase, and optionally a starch debranching enzyme such as a pullulanase and/or an isoamylase. This type of second reaction can optionally be characterized as a starch phosphorylase reaction. Starch phosphorylases (EC 2.4.1.1) suitable for use herein include those disclosed in U.S. Patent Appl. Publ. No. 2002/0133849 and Tiwari and Kumar (Biotechnol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 7:69-83), for example, which are incorporated herein by reference. A starch phosphorylase in some aspects can be a plant, microbial (e.g., bacterial), or fungal (e.g., yeast) starch phosphorylase. Pullulanases (EC 3.2.1.41) suitable for use herein include those disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 8,354,101, 7,906,306, 7,449,320, and 7,399,623, for example, which are incorporated herein by reference. A pullulanase in some aspects can be a plant, microbial (e.g., bacterial), or fungal (e.g., yeast) pullulanase. Isoamylases (EC 3.2.1.68) suitable for use herein include those disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,352,602, 5,811,277, 7,615,365 and 8,735,105, for example, which are incorporated herein by reference. An isoamylase in some aspects can be a plant, microbial (e.g., bacterial), or fungal (e.g., yeast) isoamylase.

A second reaction in some embodiments can comprise contacting water, inorganic phosphate, sucrose, and a sucrose phosphorylase enzyme. This type of second reaction can optionally be characterized as a sucrose phosphorylase reaction. Sucrose phosphorylases (EC 2.4.1.7) suitable for use herein include those disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,716,837, 7,229,801 and 7,968,309, for example, which are incorporated herein by reference. A sucrose phosphorylase in some aspects can be a plant, microbial (e.g., bacterial), or fungal (e.g., yeast) sucrose phosphorylase.

A second reaction in some embodiments can comprise contacting water, inorganic phosphate, cellulosic biomass (cellulose-comprising biomass such as lignocellulosic biomass), an endoglucanase, a cellodextrin phosphorylase, and optionally, a lytic polysaccharide monooxygenase and/or a cellobiohydrolase. Endoglucanases (e.g., cellulase, beta-1,4-glucanase) suitable for use herein include those disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,435,307, 5,776,757 and 7,604,974, for example, which are incorporated herein by reference. An endoglucanase (e.g., cellulase) in some aspects can be a plant, microbial (e.g., bacterial), or fungal (e.g., yeast) endoglucanase. A cellodextrin phosphorylase suitable for use herein can be any cellodextrin phosphorylase as presently disclosed, or as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 8,889,379, or U.S. Patent Appl. Publ. Nos. 2014/0087435, 2014/0057323, and 2013/0059340, for example, which are incorporated herein by reference. This type of second reaction (i.e., endoglucanase+cellodextrin phosphorylase) can typically be performed separately from a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzymatic reaction of a cellulose production method herein. Lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases suitable for use herein include those disclosed in Isaksen et al. (J. Biol. Chem. 289:2632-2642) and Eibinger et al. (J. Biol. Chem., Oct. 31, 2014, pii: jbc.M114.602227 [Epub ahead of print]), for example, which are incorporated herein by reference.

Embodiments of the present disclosure further concern a composition comprising an enzyme comprising an amino acid sequence that is at least 90% identical to SEQ ID NO:2, wherein the enzyme has cellodextrin phosphorylase activity. Significantly, such an enzyme is able to produce a low molecular weight, insoluble cellulose that has enhanced features under both dry and aqueous conditions, rendering such cellulose as having broad applicability. A non-limiting example of a composition comprising a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme having an amino acid sequence that is at least 90% identical to SEQ ID NO:2 is an enzymatic reaction, such as one also comprising at least water, glucose-1-phosphate, and one or more cellodextrins.

An enzyme herein with cellodextrin phosphorylase activity can comprise an amino acid sequence that is at least 90% identical to SEQ ID NO:2. In other embodiments, such an enzyme can comprise, or consist of, an amino acid sequence that is 100% identical to, or at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% identical to, SEQ ID NO:2. Non-limiting examples of a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme comprising SEQ ID NO:2 include cellodextrin phosphorylase enzymes comprising, or consisting of, an amino acid sequence that is 100% identical to, or at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% identical to, SEQ ID NO:4. A variant cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme (e.g., between 90-99% amino acid identity with SEQ ID NO:2 or 4 reference sequence) should have some of (e.g., at least 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, or 90% of), or all of, the enzymatic activity (refer to above definitions) of the corresponding non-variant reference sequence.

An enzyme with cellodextrin phosphorylase activity of the present disclosure can, optionally, synthesize cellulose in a reaction comprising water, glucose-1-phosphate, and cellodextrin. Cellulose produced in such a reaction can be insoluble (water-insoluble) and have a weight-average degree of polymerization (DP_(w)) of about 10 to about 30.

Certain aspects herein concern a polynucleotide sequence comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a cellodextrin phosphorylase comprising an amino acid sequence that is at least 90% identical to SEQ ID NO:2. Any such amino acid sequence as disclosed herein, for example, can be encoded by the nucleotide sequence. The nucleotide sequence may optionally be in operable linkage with a promoter sequence (e.g., heterologous promoter). Some embodiments include, for example, a polynucleotide (e.g., vector or construct) comprising at least one open reading frame encoding a cellodextrin phosphorylase comprising an amino acid sequence that is at least 90% identical to SEQ ID NO:2. Such a coding region can optionally be operably linked to a promoter sequence (e.g., heterologous promoter) suitable for expression in a cell (e.g., bacteria cell; eukaryotic cell such as a yeast, insect, or mammalian cell) or in an in vitro protein expression system, for example. Examples of a vector or construct include circular (e.g., plasmid) and non-circular (e.g., linear DNA such as an amplified DNA sequence) polynucleotide molecules.

Certain embodiments herein concern a method of producing a cellodextrin phosphorylase comprising an amino acid sequence that is at least 90% identical to SEQ ID NO:2. This method can comprise the steps of: providing a polynucleotide sequence having a nucleotide sequence encoding a cellodextrin phosphorylase comprising an amino acid sequence that is at least 90% identical to SEQ ID NO:2 (e.g., any such amino acid sequence as disclosed herein), and expressing the cellodextrin phosphorylase from the polynucleotide sequence, thereby producing the cellodextrin phosphorylase. The expression step in such a method can optionally be performed in a cell (e.g., bacteria cell such as E. coli; eukaryotic cell such as a yeast [e.g., S. cerevisiae], insect, or mammalian cell). Alternatively, expression of can be performed in an in vitro protein expression system (e.g., cell-free protein expression systems such as those employing rabbit reticulocyte lysate or wheat germ extract). Also, cellodextrin phosphorylase produced in the expression step can optionally be isolated. Such isolation can be performed in a manner that produces a composition having any of the features disclosed herein (e.g., purity, pH, buffer, and/or salt level), for example.

Embodiments of the present disclosure further concern a composition comprising cellulose, wherein the cellulose:

-   -   (i) has a weight-average degree of polymerization (DP_(w)) of         about 10 to about 1000,     -   (ii) has a cellulose II crystal structure, and     -   (iii) is insoluble in an aqueous composition.         Significantly, such low molecular weight, insoluble cellulose         has broad utility, owing to its having enhanced features under         both dry and aqueous conditions as further disclosed herein.

Cellulose of a composition as presently disclosed is of low molecular weight cellulose and water-insoluble. Cellulose in certain embodiments can have a DP_(w) or DP_(n) of about 10-1000. For example, DP_(w) or DP_(n) of cellulose herein can be about 10-500, 10-250, 10-100, 10-75, 10-50, 10-45, 10-40, 10-35, 10-30, 10-25, 15-50, 15-45, 15-40, 15-35, 15-30, or 15-25. DP_(w) or DP_(n) of cellulose in some aspects can be about, or at least about, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, or 50.

In some aspects herein, cellulose can have an M_(w) of about 1700-170000, 1700-86000, 1700-43000, 1700-17000, 1700-13000, 1700-8500, 1700-6800, 1700-5100, 2550-5100, or 2550-4250. M_(w) can be about, or at least about, 1700, 1900, 2100, 2300, 2500, 2700, 2900, 3100, 3300, 3500, 3700, 3900, 4100, 4300, 4500, 4700, 4900, or 5100 in some examples.

About 100% of the glycosidic linkages of cellulose as presently disclosed are beta-1,4 linkages, for example. Cellulose in other aspects can have a glycosidic linkage profile of at least about 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% beta-1,4 linkages. Accordingly, cellulose herein can have, for example, less than 10%, 9%, 8%, 7%, 6%, 5%, 4%, 3%, 2% or 1% of glycosidic linkages that are other than beta-1,4.

The backbone of cellulose disclosed herein can be linear/unbranched. Alternatively, there can be branches in the cellulose. Thus, in certain embodiments, cellulose can have no branch points or less than about 5%, 4%, 3%, 2%, or 1% branch points as a percent of the glycosidic linkages in the polymer.

Cellulose as disclosed herein can have a cellulose II crystal structure. For example, cellulose herein can comprise about 100% cellulose, by weight, that is of a cellulose II crystal structure. As other examples, cellulose can comprise at least about 80%, 81%, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% A cellulose, by weight, that is of a cellulose II crystal structure. Cellulose in some aspects can comprise less than about 20%, 19%, 18%, 17%, 16%, 15%, 14%, 13%, 12%, 11%, 10%, 9%, 8%, 7%, 6%, 5%, 4%, 3%, 2%, or 1% cellulose material, by weight, that is of a cellulose I, III, and/or IV crystal structure. Cellulose II crystal structure has been described by Kolpak and Blackwell (Macromolecules 9:273-278) and Kroon-Batenburg and Kroon (Glycoconjugate J. 14:677-690), for example, both of which are incorporated herein by reference. The dominant hydrogen bonds characterizing a cellulose II structure are O2-H---O6, O6-H---O6 and O2-H---O2, whereas cellulose I has O2-H---O6 as a dominant hydrogen bond. The structure of cellulose II comprises chain folding and is difficult to unravel.

Cellulose herein can be characterized as being isolated, for example. Compositions comprising cellulose as presently disclosed are not believed to occur in nature.

Cellulose as disclosed herein can optionally be characterized as having a flake or flake-like shape at nanometer scale. Flake or flake-like shapes formed by the cellulose have nano-size dimensions; such shapes can appear as flat, thin pieces of material when using appropriate microscopic techniques such as disclosed in the present Examples. In other aspects, cellulose herein is not, nor has been, derivatized. Thus, cellulose as disclosed herein does not comprise added functional groups such as ether groups (e.g., carboxymethyl groups) or ester groups (e.g., acetate groups).

Cellulose of a composition as presently disclosed herein can be a product of a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme comprising, or consisting of, an amino acid sequence that is at least 90% identical to SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:6. In other embodiments, cellulose can be a product of a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme that comprises, or consists of, an amino acid sequence that is 100% identical to, or at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% identical to, SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:6. Non-limiting examples of a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme comprising SEQ ID NO:2 include cellodextrin phosphorylase enzymes comprising, or consisting of, an amino acid sequence that is 100% identical to, or at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% identical to, SEQ ID NO:4. Non-limiting examples of a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme comprising SEQ ID NO:6 include cellodextrin phosphorylase enzymes comprising, or consisting of, an amino acid sequence that is 100% identical to, or at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% identical to, SEQ ID NO:8. A variant cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme (e.g., between 90-99% amino acid identity with SEQ ID NO:2, 4, 6, or 8 reference sequence) should have some of (e.g., at least 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, or 90% of), or all of, the enzymatic activity (refer to above definitions) of the corresponding non-variant reference sequence. Production of cellulose using a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme can be accomplished with an enzymatic reaction as disclosed herein, for example.

Cellulose as produced by a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme of the present disclosure can have a cellulose II crystal structure; such cellulose has not been subjected to a mercerization or derivatization process. Cellulose herein as it exists immediately or shortly after (e.g., less than about 0.5, 1, 5, 10, 15, 30, 60, 90, or 120 minutes) its enzymatic synthesis by a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme can comprise cellulose in the cellulose II crystal state. In contrast to cellulose as presently disclosed, cellulose produced in nature (e.g., in plants) typically is of a cellulose I structure and generally requires mercerization and/or other chemical treatments (e.g., derivatization followed by un-derivatization, formation of regenerated cellulose) to convert it into cellulose II. Cellulose in certain embodiments herein comprises cellulose in the cellulose II crystal state under both aqueous and dry conditions.

Cellulose of a composition as presently disclosed is insoluble in aqueous solvents such as water. In contrast, it can be soluble in certain non-aqueous solvents such as those comprising dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and/or N,N-dimethylacetamide (DMAc). Examples of such solvents include DMSO or DMAc alone or further comprising lithium chloride (LiCl) (e.g., DMSO/LiCl and DMAc/LiCl). A DMSO/LiCl solvent or DMSO/LiCl solvent herein can comprise about 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 wt % LiCl, for example, or can be LiCl-saturated. The concentration of cellulose herein can be at about 0.1-30 wt %, 0.1-20 wt %, 0.1-10 wt %, or 0.1-5 wt %, for example, or can be at about, or at least about, 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, or 30 wt % in a non-aqueous solvent such as one comprising DMSO and/or DMAc. DMSO- and DMAc-comprising solvents herein do not further comprise an acid in certain aspects. Cellulose herein can be dissolved in any of the foregoing DMSO- and DMAc-based solvents at a relatively low temperature, such as at 15-30° C., 20-30° C., or 20-25° C. (e.g., room temperature), for example. In preferred embodiments, heat does not need to be applied to dissolve the cellulose.

A composition comprising a cellulose herein can be non-aqueous (e.g., a dry composition). Examples of such embodiments include films/coatings, powders, granules, microcapsules, flakes, or any other form of particulate matter. Other examples include larger compositions such as pellets, bars, kernels, beads, tablets, sticks, or other agglomerates. A non-aqueous or dry composition herein typically has less than 3, 2, 1, 0.5, or 0.1 wt % water comprised therein. The amount of cellulose herein in a non-aqueous or dry composition can be about, or at least about, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 99.5, or 99.9 wt %, for example.

In certain embodiments of the present disclosure, a composition comprising cellulose can be an aqueous composition that optionally has a viscosity of at least about 100 cPs. An aqueous composition herein can have a viscosity of at least about 100, 250, 500, 750, 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, 5000, 6000, 7000, 8000, 9000, 10000, 11000, 12000, 13000, 14000, 15000, 16000, 17000, 18000, 19000, 20000, 25000, 30000, 35000, 40000, 45000, or 50000 cPs (or any integer between 100 and 50000 cPs), for example. Examples of aqueous compositions herein include colloidal dispersions.

Viscosity can be measured with an aqueous composition herein at any temperature between about 3° C. to about 110° C. (or any integer between 3 and 110° C.), for example. Alternatively, viscosity can be measured at a temperature between about 4° C. to 30° C., or about 20° C. to 25° C., for instance. Viscosity can be measured at atmospheric pressure (about 760 torr) or any other higher or lower pressure.

The viscosity of an aqueous composition disclosed herein can be measured using a viscometer or rheometer, or using any other means known in the art. It would be understood by those skilled in the art that a viscometer or rheometer can be used to measure the viscosity of aqueous compositions herein that exhibit shear thinning behavior (i.e., having viscosities that vary with flow conditions). The viscosity of such embodiments can be measured at a rotational shear rate of about 0.1 to 1000 rpm (revolutions per minute), for example. In some embodiments, viscosity can be measured at a rotational shear rate of about 10, 60, 150, 250, or 600 rpm.

The pH of an aqueous composition disclosed herein can be between about 2.0 to about 12.0, for example. Alternatively, pH can be about 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0, 11.0, 12.0; or between 5.0 to about 12.0; or between about 4.0 and 8.0; or between about 5.0 and 8.0, for example.

An aqueous composition herein can comprise a solvent having at least about 10 or 20 wt % water. In other embodiments, a solvent comprises at least about 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, or 100 wt % water (or any integer value between 10 and 100 wt %), for example.

Cellulose of the present disclosure can be present as insoluble material in an aqueous composition at a wt % of about, or at least about, 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0, 1.2, 1.4, 1.6, 1.8, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 4.5, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, or 90 wt %, for example. Example 4 below demonstrates that cellulose in certain aspects provides high viscosity to aqueous compositions at relatively low concentrations of the cellulose. Thus, certain embodiments of the present disclosure are drawn to aqueous compositions with less than about 30, 29, 28, 27, 26, 25, 24, 23, 22, 21, 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or 0.5 wt % cellulose herein.

An aqueous composition herein can comprise other components in addition to the disclosed cellulose. For example, the aqueous composition can comprise one or more salts such as a sodium salt (e.g., NaCl, Na₂SO₄). Other non-limiting examples of salts include those having (i) an aluminum, ammonium, barium, calcium, chromium (II or III), copper (I or II), iron (II or III), hydrogen, lead (II), lithium, magnesium, manganese (II or III), mercury (I or II), potassium, silver, sodium strontium, tin (II or IV), or zinc cation, and (ii) an acetate, borate, bromate, bromide, carbonate, chlorate, chloride, chlorite, chromate, cyanamide, cyanide, dichromate, dihydrogen phosphate, ferricyanide, ferrocyanide, fluoride, hydrogen carbonate, hydrogen phosphate, hydrogen sulfate, hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen sulfite, hydride, hydroxide, hypochlorite, iodate, iodide, nitrate, nitride, nitrite, oxalate, oxide, perchlorate, permanganate, peroxide, phosphate, phosphide, phosphite, silicate, stannate, stannite, sulfate, sulfide, sulfite, tartrate, or thiocyanate anion. Thus, any salt having a cation from (i) above and an anion from (ii) above can be in an aqueous composition, for example. A salt can be present in an aqueous composition herein at a wt % of about (or at least about) 0.01 to about 10.00 (or any hundredth increment between 0.01 and 10.00), for example.

An aqueous composition comprising cellulose herein can be a colloidal dispersion, for example. The average size/diameter of cellulose particles in a colloidal dispersion herein typically ranges from between about 1 nm to 200000 nm (200 micrometers). Average particle size can be about 1-100 nm, 1-1000 nm, 1-10000 nm, 1-100000 nm, 1-200000 nm, 10-100 nm, 10-1000 nm, 10-10000 nm, 10-100000 nm, 10-200000 nm, 100-1000 nm, 100-10000 nm, 100-100000 nm, 100-200000 nm, 1000-10000 nm, 1000-100000, 1000-200000 nm, 10000-100000 nm, or 10000-200000 nm in some examples.

Aqueous compositions in certain embodiments have shear thinning behavior. Shear thinning behavior is observed as a decrease in viscosity of an aqueous composition as shear rate increases. Modification of the shear thinning behavior of an aqueous composition can be due to the admixture of cellulose herein to the aqueous composition. Thus, one or more cellulose materials of the present disclosure can be added to an aqueous composition to modify its rheological profile (i.e., the flow properties of an aqueous liquid, solution, or mixture are modified). Also, one or more cellulose materials herein can be added to an aqueous composition to modify its viscosity.

The rheological properties of aqueous compositions herein can be observed by measuring viscosity over an increasing rotational shear rate (e.g., from about 0.1 rpm to about 1000 rpm). For example, shear thinning behavior of an aqueous composition disclosed herein can be observed as a decrease in viscosity (cPs) by at least about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, or 95% (or any integer between 5% and 95%) as the rotational shear rate increases from about 10 rpm to 60 rpm, 10 rpm to 150 rpm, 10 rpm to 250 rpm, 60 rpm to 150 rpm, 60 rpm to 250 rpm, or 150 rpm to 250 rpm.

Non-limiting examples of compositions and methods disclosed herein include:

-   1. An enzymatic reaction comprising water, glucose-1-phosphate,     cellodextrin, and a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme that     synthesizes insoluble cellulose (e.g., a cellodextrin phosphorylase     enzyme comprising an amino acid sequence that is at least 90%     identical to SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:6, and that synthesizes     insoluble cellulose). -   2. The enzymatic reaction of embodiment 1, wherein the cellulose has     a weight-average degree of polymerization (DP_(w)) of (i) about 10     to about 30, or (ii) about 10 to about 1000. -   3. The enzymatic reaction of embodiment 1 or 2, wherein the     cellodextrin comprises cellobiose. -   4. A method for producing insoluble cellulose, the method     comprising:     -   a) contacting at least water, glucose-1-phosphate, cellodextrin,         and a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme such as one comprising         an amino acid sequence that is at least 90% identical to SEQ ID         NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:6, wherein insoluble cellulose is produced;         and     -   b) optionally, isolating the insoluble cellulose produced in         step (a). -   5. The method of embodiment 4, wherein the cellulose produced in     step (a) has a weight-average degree of polymerization (DP_(w))     of (i) about 10 to about 30, or (ii) about 10 to about 1000. -   6. The method of embodiment 4 or 5, wherein the cellulose produced     in step (a) has a cellulose II crystal structure. -   7. The method of embodiment 4, 5, or 6, wherein the cellodextrin     comprises cellobiose. -   8. The method of embodiment 4, 5, 6, or 7, wherein the     glucose-1-phosphate is provided in step (a) by providing a second     reaction, wherein the products of the second reaction comprise     glucose-1-phosphate. -   9. The method of embodiment 8, wherein the second reaction produces     glucose-1-phosphate by:     -   (i) contacting water, inorganic phosphate, starch, a starch         phosphorylase, and optionally a starch debranching enzyme such         as a pullulanase or isoamylase;     -   (ii) contacting water, inorganic phosphate, sucrose, and a         sucrose phosphorylase enzyme; or     -   (iii) contacting water, inorganic phosphate, cellulosic biomass,         an endoglucanase, a cellodextrin phosphorylase, and optionally,         a lytic polysaccharide monooxygenase and/or a cellobiohydrolase. -   10. The method of embodiment 8 or 9, wherein the second reaction is     provided in the same vessel in which step (a) is performed, and     wherein the second reaction is performed before and/or continuously     with step (a).

EXAMPLES

The present disclosure is further exemplified in the following Examples. It should be understood that these Examples, while indicating certain preferred aspects herein, are given by way of illustration only. From the above discussion and these Examples, one skilled in the art can ascertain the essential characteristics of the disclosed embodiments, and without departing from the spirit and scope thereof, can make various changes and modifications to adapt the disclosed embodiments to various uses and conditions.

Example 1 Expression and Analysis of a Vibrio ruber Cellodextrin Phosphorylase

This Example describes expression of a putative Vibrio ruber cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme in E. coli. Also, this Example demonstrates that this enzyme is indeed a cellodextrin phosphorylase through analysis of enzyme specific activity.

A putative cellodextrin phosphorylase, VruCdp1 (also referred to herein as “CRC03362-VruCdp1”), was identified in Vibrio ruber DSM14379. The nucleic acid sequence encoding VruCdp1 was predicted based on a genomic sequence, and is presented as SEQ ID NO:1. The amino acid sequence of VruCdp1 encoded by SEQ ID NO:1 is presented as SEQ ID NO:2.

Putative VruCdp1 cellodextrin phosphorylase was next heterologously expressed in E. coli, as follows. A polynucleotide sequence encoding VruCdp1 was codon-optimized for expression in E. coli. This sequence (SEQ ID NO:3) was inserted into the pET30a (Novagen) expression vector at the NdeI and XhoI sites by Generay (Shanghai, China), resulting in plasmid pZZH634. SEQ ID NO:3 contains the codon-optimized open reading frame as well as sequence encoding two extra amino acids (Leu-Glu) and a 6× His-tag at the C-terminus. The amino acid sequence encoded by SEQ ID NO:3 is presented as SEQ ID NO:4. The pZZH634 plasmid was transformed into E. coli strain BL21(DE3) (Novagen), which was plated on LB agar plates supplemented with 50 ppm kanamycin. Correctly transformed colonies, as confirmed by PCR and sequencing, were inoculated into 5 ml LB medium supplemented with 50 ppm kanamycin and cultivated in 37° C. with shaking for about 16 hours. About 1 mL of the culture was then inoculated into 25 mL LB medium supplemented with 50 ppm kanamycin and cultivated in 37° C. with shaking until the OD₆₀₀ reached about 0.4-1.0. IPTG was then added into the culture at a final concentration at 100 mM to induce VruCdp1 expression. The culture was then cultivated at 16° C. for 12-16 hours.

After this period of inducing VruCdp1 expression, the E. coli cells were pelleted, resuspended in lysis buffer (50 mM Tris pH 7.0, 500 mM NaCl, 10% glycerol, 0.1% Tween-20), and lysed on ice via ultra-sonication for 10 min (35% power, 20 min, 2 sec on/2 sec off) (SCIENT2-II D, Ningbo Scientz Biotechnology Co., Ltd). The lysate was cleared by centrifugation at 13000 rpm for 30 min (BECKMAN COULTER, Avanti™ JE). The clarified lysate was applied onto a His Trap™ HP (5 mL) (GE Healthcare) pre-equilibrated with 50 mM Tris pH 7.0, 500 mM NaCl, and 10% glycerol. The target protein (VruCdp1) was eluted from the column with a linear gradient from 0 to 250 mM imidazole in equilibration buffer. The fractions containing the target protein were pooled, concentrated and exchanged to equilibration buffer using 10K Amicon Ultra devices, and stored in 40% glycerol at −20° C. until usage.

The activity of VruCdp1 (isolated above) was measured using 10 mM G-1-P (Sigma G7000, α-D-Glucose 1-phosphate disodium salt hydrate) and 5 mM cellobiose (Sigma C7252, D-(+)-cellobiose) as substrates. The assay was performed in 25 mM Tris-HCl buffer, pH 7.0 at 37° C. for 10 minutes. Phosphorus release from the enzyme reaction was quantified using PiBlue™ reagent (BioAssay Systems, US). One unit of cellodextrin phosphorylase activity was defined as the amount of enzyme that releases 1 μmol of inorganic phosphorus per minute under the assay conditions. The specific activity of the isolated VruCdp1 was determined to be 18.4 units/mg. Based on this observation, VruCdp1 was determined to be a cellodextrin phosphorylase (EC 2.4.1.49) belonging to glycosyl hydrolase family 94 (GH94, CAZy number).

Thus, an enzyme comprising SEQ ID NO:2 (VruCdp1) was expressed, isolated and shown to have cellodextrin phosphorylase activity.

Example 2 Expression and Analysis of a Ruminococcus Champanellensis Cellodextrin Phosphorylase

This Example describes expression of a putative Ruminococcus champanellensis cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme in E. coli. Also, this Example demonstrates that this enzyme is indeed a cellodextrin phosphorylase through analysis of enzyme specific activity.

A putative cellodextrin phosphorylase, RchCdp1 (also referred to herein as “CRC03359-RchCdp1”), was identified in Ruminococcus champanellensis 18P13. The nucleic acid sequence encoding RchCdp1 (positions 2373141 to 2375537 of GENBANK Accession No. NC_021039.1) is presented as SEQ ID NO:5. The amino acid sequence of RchCdp1 encoded by SEQ ID NO:5 is presented as SEQ ID NO:6.

Putative RchCdp1 cellodextrin phosphorylase was next heterologously expressed in E. coli, as follows. A polynucleotide sequence encoding RchCdp1 was codon-optimized for expression in E. coli. This sequence (SEQ ID NO:7) was inserted into the pET30a (Novagen) expression vector at the NdeI and XhoI sites by Generay (Shanghai, China), resulting in plasmid pZZH631. SEQ ID NO:7 contains the codon-optimized open reading frame as well as sequence encoding two extra amino acids (Leu-Glu) and a 6× His-tag at the C-terminus. The amino acid sequence encoded by SEQ ID NO:7 is presented as SEQ ID NO:8. The pZZH631 plasmid was transformed into E. coli strain BL21(DE3) (Novagen), which was plated on LB agar plates supplemented with 50 ppm kanamycin. Correctly transformed colonies, as confirmed by PCR and sequencing, were inoculated into 5 ml LB medium supplemented with 50 ppm kanamycin and cultivated in 37° C. with shaking for about 16 hours. About 1 mL of the culture was then inoculated into 25 mL LB medium supplemented with 50 ppm kanamycin and cultivated in 37° C. with shaking until the OD₆₀₀ reached about 0.4-1.0. IPTG was then added into the culture at a final concentration at 100 mM to induce RchCdp1 expression. The culture was then cultivated at 16° C. for 12-16 hours.

After this period of inducing RchCdp1 expression, the E. coli cells were pelleted, resuspended in lysis buffer (50 mM Tris pH 7.0, 500 mM NaCl, 10% glycerol, 0.1% Tween-20), and lysed on ice via ultra-sonication for 10 min (35% power, 20 min, 2 sec on/2 sec off) (SCIENT2-II D, Ningbo Scientz Biotechnology Co., Ltd). The lysate was cleared by centrifugation at 13000 rpm for 30 min (BECKMAN COULTER, Avanti™ JE). The clarified lysate was applied onto a His Trap™ HP (5 mL) (GE Healthcare) pre-equilibrated with 50 mM Tris pH 7.0, 500 mM NaCl, and 10% glycerol. The target protein (RchCdp1) was eluted from the column with a linear gradient from 0 to 250 mM imidazole in equilibration buffer. The fractions containing the target protein were pooled, concentrated and exchanged to equilibration buffer using 10K Amicon Ultra devices, and stored in 40% glycerol at −20° C. until usage.

The activity of RchCdp1 (isolated above) was measured using 10 mM G-1-P (Sigma G7000, α-D-Glucose 1-phosphate disodium salt hydrate) and 5 mM cellobiose (Sigma C7252, D-(+)-cellobiose) as substrates. The assay was performed in 25 mM Tris-HCl buffer, pH 7.0 at 37° C. for 10 minutes. Phosphorus release from the enzyme reaction was quantified using PiBlue™ reagent (BioAssay Systems, US). One unit of cellodextrin phosphorylase activity was defined as the amount of enzyme that releases 1 μmol of inorganic phosphorus per minute under the assay conditions. The specific activity of the isolated RchCdp1 was determined to be 15.4 units/mg. Based on this observation, RchCdp1 was determined to be a cellodextrin phosphorylase (EC 2.4.1.49) belonging to glycosyl hydrolase family 94 (GH94, CAZy number).

Thus, an enzyme comprising SEQ ID NO:6 (RchCdp1) was expressed, isolated and shown to have cellodextrin phosphorylase activity.

Example 3 Using V. ruber and R. champanellensis Cellodextrin Phosphorylases to Produce Low Molecular Weight, Insoluble Cellulose

This Example describes using the cellodextrin phosphorylases described in Examples 1 and 2 to produce cellulose when applied in reactions containing G-1-P and cellodextrin.

A reaction comprising G-1-P and cellobiose in the presence of a V. ruber cellodextrin phosphorylase (VruCdp1, refer to Example 1) produced insoluble polysaccharide. To generate enough insoluble polysaccharide for analysis, a scale-up reaction was conducted by adding 1 g G-1-P, 0.25 g cellobiose, and 400 μg (˜7.4 units) isolated VruCdp1 to a glass bottle containing 80 mL of 25 mM Tris buffer pH 7.0. The reaction was incubated overnight at 37° C. Insoluble polysaccharide product was collected by centrifugation at 3000 rpm for 20 minutes. This material was determined to be low molecular weight cellulose (refer to Example 4 below).

A reaction comprising G-1-P and cellobiose in the presence of an R. champanellensis cellodextrin phosphorylase (RchCdp1, refer to Example 2) produced insoluble polysaccharide. To generate enough insoluble polysaccharide for analysis, a scale-up reaction was conducted by adding 1 g G-1-P, 0.25 g cellobiose, and 400 μg (˜6.2 units) isolated RchCdp1 to a glass bottle containing 80 mL of 25 mM Tris buffer pH 7.0. The reaction was incubated overnight at 37° C. Insoluble polysaccharide product was collected by centrifugation at 3000 rpm for 20 minutes. This material was determined to be low molecular weight cellulose (refer to Example 4 below).

Thus, enzymes comprising SEQ ID NO:2 (VruCdp1) or SEQ ID NO:6 (RchCdp1) produce low molecular weight, insoluble cellulose when provided in a reaction comprising G-1-P and cellodextrin (e.g., cellobiose) substrates. It is noteworthy that these enzymes had this particular cellulose synthesis activity, given that sixteen other cellodextrin phosphorylases that were similarly expressed and analyzed did not have this capability (data not shown).

Example 4 Analysis of Insoluble Polysaccharides Produced by V. ruber and R. champanellensis Cellodextrin Phosphorylases

This Example describes various analyses of the insoluble polysaccharide products obtained in the reactions described in Example 3. These analyses indicate that the products comprise low molecular weight, insoluble cellulose.

¹H-NMR analysis was conducted on the insoluble materials produced by V. ruber and R. champanellensis cellodextrin phosphorylases (Example 3). Briefly, 13.8 mg of each sample was dissolved by stirring in 0.8 ml of DMSO-d6, 3 wt % LiCl for 1 hour at 60° C. NMR was run on the dissolved samples using an AVANCE III HD NMR device equipped with a 5-mm CPC Q1 cryoprobe. This analysis indicated that the insoluble materials are polymers of glucose with beta-1,4 linkage, which is the characteristic linkage of cellulose. Thus, the insoluble materials produced by V. ruber and R. champanellensis cellodextrin phosphorylases comprise insoluble cellulose.

Each insoluble cellulose material was further analyzed using triple-detector SEC (size exclusion chromatography) to determine its molecular weight (M_(w)). Briefly, each sample was dissolved at 0.1-0.3 wt % in DMSO, 2 wt % LiCl and run through SEC. The M_(w) for each sample was found to be about 3-4 kDa (DP_(w)˜18-24) (Table 2).

TABLE 2 Molecular Weight of Cellulose Produced by RchCdp1 and VruCdp1 Enzymes Cellulose Mp^(b) Mw^(c) Mz^(d) Calculated IV^(f) Uncertainty Product of: Mn^(a) (kDa) (kDa) (kDa) (kDa) DPw^(e) mass (μg) (mL/g) in IV RchCdp1 2.94 2.99 2.95 3 18.2 140.81 6.441 1.47% VruCdp1 3.82 3.9 3.83 3.8 23.6 133.8 6.277 1.89% ^(a)Mn, number average molecular weight. ^(b)Mp, peak molecular weight. ^(c)Mw, mass average molecular weight. ^(d)Mz, z-average molecular weight. ^(e)DPw, mass average degree of polymerization. ^(f)IV, intrinsic viscosity.

Thus, the cellulose samples produced by each of the RchCdp1 and VruCdp1 enzymes were of much lower molecular weight compared to cellulose obtained from cotton, wood pulp and microbial sources.

The low molecular weight cellulose samples were readily soluble and filterable in DMSO/LiCl (preparations as provided for SEC analysis above) and DMAc/LiCl (5 wt % LiCl in DMAc) at room temperature. This is noteworthy, since cellulose obtained from wood pulp, for example, typically cannot be dissolved in DMSO/LiCl, and requires elevated temperatures (e.g., about 100° C.) and times (e.g., 1 or more days) to dissolve in DMAc/LiCl. Since there was a clear viscometer peak observed with each of the samples (data not shown), it appears that enzymatically produced low molecular weight cellulose molecules behave as rigid rods.

Both as-made (produced as in Example 3 and stored in water, but never dried) and dried cellulose material (as synthesized by both RchCdp1 and VruCdp1 enzymes) exhibited a reflection indicative of cellulose II crystal under wide angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) analysis, which is the most stable crystal form of cellulose. It is noteworthy that, although the as-made samples were provided in an abundance of water after enzymatic production (98.5 wt % and 97.5 wt % water, respectively, for cellulose products of RchCdp1 and VruCdp1 enzymes), a clear reflection was still observed, superimposed to a broad amorphous diffraction from the water. This observation of cellulose II structure is interesting, since it is believed that cellulose II is typically obtained after cellulose has undergone certain chemical processing steps (e.g., mercerization; derivatization followed by recovery of non-derivatized cellulose) (Kroon-Batenburg and Kroon, Glycoconjugate J. 14:677-690). In contrast, the present Example demonstrates that cellulose as directly produced in reactions containing RchCdp1 and VruCdp1 enzymes has a cellulose II crystal structure, without application of any post-synthesis chemical treatments.

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) was used to analyze a thin film made from drying a colloidal dispersion of insoluble cellulose synthesized by either RchCdp1 or VruCdp1 enzymes. Briefly, a film was casted from a ˜2 wt % dispersion of insoluble cellulose in water using a blade coater with a 3-mil thickness. The coated wet film was allowed to dry by slow water evaporation at room temperature. AFM analysis (FIGS. 1A and 1B) of dried coatings showed a unique morphology of sheets with a highly uniform thickness of about 5 nm and width of hundreds of nanometers. It is believed that such a two-dimensional, graphene-like cellulose coating has never previously been demonstrated. Typically rather, cellulose materials such as nano-crystalline cellulose and those from microbial sources form rod-like colloids, not two-dimensional flake-like structures. Flake-like two dimensional structures are contemplated to have a number of advantages. For example, cellulose material with such structural properties likely has enhanced oxygen- and/or water-barrier properties. Moreover, the highly crystalline nature of the cellulose materials provided herein should allow increased mechanical properties of traditional thermoplastic polymers.

The above-prepared colloidal dispersions of insoluble cellulose could easily be coated to yield highly transparent, continuous films. Such film had a very thin thickness ranging between 1 and 2 microns, with a roughness of about 300 nm (data not shown). Thus, the low molecular weight, insoluble cellulose material provided herein is contemplated to be useful in water-based coating systems that can enable a number of applications. Examples of such applications include oxygen- and water vapor-barrier coatings on packaging plastics, as well as edible coating on fruits and vegetables to increase product shelf life. Moreover, the disclosed coatings can be useful for seed coating applications and for enabling active ingredient release in pharmaceutical compositions.

Colloidal dispersions in water containing 1.7-2.5 wt % of insoluble cellulose synthesized by either RchCdp1 or VruCdp1 enzymes were analyzed for their degree of viscosity. Briefly, a Brookfield rheometer was used to obtain viscosity versus shear rate data, where the viscosity was measured at 10 (1/s) shear rate from the curves. It was found that both colloidal dispersions exhibit high viscosity that was 10000 times higher than the viscosity of water (FIG. 2). Also, the dispersions exhibited shear thinning behavior (where viscosity decreases as a function of shear rate), which is desired in many thickening applications. It is noteworthy to have obtained such high viscosity levels, given that each insoluble cellulose sample was of low DPw (less than 25 DPw, Table 2). In fact, commercially available carboxymethyl-derivatized cellulose (water-soluble) required significantly higher DPw (about 1000 or higher) to increase viscosity in water to the same extent as the viscosity observed when using the insoluble cellulose samples provided herein (FIG. 3).

Thus, the insoluble polysaccharide materials produced by V. ruber and R. champanellensis cellodextrin phosphorylases comprise low molecular weight, insoluble cellulose. This cellulose has a DP_(w) of about 18-24 and exhibits a cellulose II crystal structure. The cellulose II crystal structure is not a result of chemical processing such as mercerization or derivatization/un-derivatization processes, but rather characterizes the insoluble cellulose material as it is directly produced enzymatically. The unique properties of the insoluble cellulose provided herein gives this material broad utility, such as use in viscosity- and rheology-modification applications, and film/barrier applications. 

What is claimed is:
 1. An isolated reaction composition comprising water, glucose-1-phosphate, cellodextrin, and a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme comprising an amino acid sequence that is at least 90% identical to SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:6, wherein the cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme synthesizes insoluble cellulose having a weight-average degree of polymerization (DPw) of at least
 15. 2. The isolated reaction composition of claim 1, wherein said insoluble cellulose has a DPw of at least
 17. 3. The isolated reaction composition of claim 1, wherein said insoluble cellulose has a DPw of 15 to
 50. 4. The isolated reaction composition of claim 1, wherein the cellodextrin comprises cellobiose.
 5. A method for producing insoluble cellulose, said method comprising: a) contacting at least water, glucose-1-phosphate, cellodextrin, and a cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme in an isolated reaction, wherein said cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme comprises an amino acid sequence that is at least 90% identical to SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:6, wherein insoluble cellulose having a weight-average degree of polymerization (DPw) of at least 15 is produced; and b) optionally, isolating the insoluble cellulose produced in step (a).
 6. The method of claim 5, wherein the insoluble cellulose produced in step (a) has a DPw of at least
 17. 7. The method of claim 5, wherein the insoluble cellulose produced in step (a) has a DPw of 15 to
 50. 8. The method of claim 5, wherein the insoluble cellulose produced in step (a) has a cellulose II crystal structure.
 9. The method of claim 5, wherein the cellodextrin comprises cellobiose.
 10. The method of claim 5, wherein said glucose-1-phosphate is provided in step (a) by providing a second reaction, wherein the products of the second reaction comprise glucose-1-phosphate.
 11. The method of claim 10, wherein the second reaction produces glucose-1-phosphate by: (i) contacting water, inorganic phosphate, starch, a starch phosphorylase, and optionally a starch debranching enzyme; (ii) contacting water, inorganic phosphate, sucrose, and a sucrose phosphorylase enzyme; or (iii) contacting water, inorganic phosphate, cellulosic biomass, an endoglucanase, a cellodextrin phosphorylase, and optionally a lytic polysaccharide monooxygenase and/or a cellobiohydrolase.
 12. The method of claim 10, wherein the second reaction is provided in the same vessel in which step (a) is performed, and wherein the second reaction is performed before and/or continuously with step (a).
 13. The method of claim 11, wherein the starch debranching enzyme is a pullulanase or isoamylase.
 14. The method of claim 5, further comprising isolating the insoluble cellulose produced in step (a).
 15. The method of claim 5, wherein the cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme comprises an amino acid sequence that is at least 95% identical to SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:6.
 16. The isolated reaction composition of claim 3, wherein said insoluble cellulose has a DPw of 15 to
 30. 17. The isolated reaction composition of claim 2, wherein said insoluble cellulose has a DPw of 17 to
 50. 18. The isolated reaction composition of claim 17, wherein said insoluble cellulose has a DPw of 17 to
 30. 19. The isolated reaction composition of claim 1, wherein the cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme comprises an amino acid sequence that is at least 95% identical to SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:6.
 20. The isolated reaction composition of claim 2, wherein the cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme comprises an amino acid sequence that is at least 95% identical to SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:6.
 21. The isolated reaction composition of claim 3, wherein the cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme comprises an amino acid sequence that is at least 95% identical to SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:6.
 22. The isolated reaction composition of claim 16, wherein the cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme comprises an amino acid sequence that is at least 95% identical to SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:6.
 23. The isolated reaction composition of claim 17, wherein the cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme comprises an amino acid sequence that is at least 95% identical to SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:6.
 24. The isolated reaction composition of claim 18, wherein the cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme comprises an amino acid sequence that is at least 95% identical to SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:6.
 25. The isolated reaction composition of claim 1, wherein the cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme is a Vibrio species cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme or a Ruminococcus species cellodextrin phosphorylase enzyme.
 26. The isolated reaction composition of claim 1, comprised within a stainless steel vessel, plastic vessel, or glass vessel.
 27. The isolated reaction composition of claim 1, wherein the isolated reaction composition is cell-free. 